Surfacing: resurrecting the lost glory of Poompuhar

Recent underwater explorations off the coast of Poompuhar seem to have yielded a wealth of artefacts indicating the presence of an advanced society that thrived during the Sangam period. N. Sai Charan speaks to the divers and archaeologists to find out what they've unearthed

For nearly 2,000 years, the history of Poompuhar, also known as Kaveripoompattinam, in present-day Mayiladuthurai district, has survived through literary accounts and archaeological remains unearthed across the region over the past century.

Situated at the point where the Cauvery flows into the Bay of Bengal, the ancient port city was once an important centre of maritime trade and an urban settlement associated with the ancient Cholas. The grandeur of the city, its bustling markets, seafaring communities, and commercial and cultural links with the wider world find elaborate mention in Sangam and post-Sangam literature, including Silappadikaram, Manimekalai, and Pattinappalai.

Now, archaeologists from the Tamil Nadu State Department of Archaeology (TNSDA) have taken up the challenging task of finding archaeological evidence of the lost city -- believed to have been submerged by wave action -- and its ancient trade links. Over nearly a year, they conducted three phases of underwater archaeological exploration: diving into the sea, surveying the seabed, and retrieving artefacts.

Underwater exploration

The first phase began in September 2025 and continued for 15 days. The second phase was conducted in March 2026 for 19 days, and the third phase in September 2026 for 20 days.

This was not the first time underwater archaeological explorations had been conducted off the Poompuhar coast. In the 1980s, a team led by renowned archaeologist S.R. Rao, along with the National Institute of Oceanography (NIO), conducted a series of geophysical surveys of its ocean floor. Using side-scan sonar, these surveys revealed the presence of several 'anomalies' at depths of around 20 metres.

After the NIO suggested an intensive exploration involving divers, the TNSDA, which was then headed by well-known archaeologist Natana Kasinathan, conducted a series of explorations beginning in February 1991.

These led to the discovery of a shipwreck, around 4.5 km offshore, at a depth of around 20 metres, seaward of Vanagiri near Poompuhar. Believed to have sunk during the 18th century, the vessel had broken into two sections and was heavily encrusted with marine organisms.

The divers found a considerable number of lead ingots, some of which bore the inscription 'W. Blackett', believed to be the manufacturer's name, on one side, and the year 1792 on the other, possibly the year of manufacture. Further explorations also revealed several structures believed to be man-made, as well as ceramics.

Literary accounts

Several literary accounts shed light on the magnificence of the ancient city of Poompuhar, which was divided into three major parts -- Maruvurpakkam, Pattinappakkam, and Naalangadi (day market). Maruvurpakkam was situated along the seashore, while Pattinappakkam lay to its west, with Naalangadi located between them.

Maruvurpakkam was home to settlements of foreign merchants who used ships for trade, its streets lined with vendors selling spices, perfumes and flowers, and the dwellings of weavers who manufactured clothes. It also had streets occupied by those who sold precious stones, besides artisans, sculptors and fishermen. Pattinappakkam, on the other hand, housed temples and the residences of royal personages, military officials, wealthy merchants and cultivators, noted Mr. Kasinathan, citing literary references while documenting the findings in his book titled Under Sea Exploration Off the Shore of Poompuhar.

Recent exploration

The recent exploration covered an approximately 16-km stretch off the Poompuhar coast, between Thirumullaivasal in the north and Vanagiri in the south. The investigation extended up to six kilometres into the sea and was divided into four zones. The first zone covered the first kilometre from the coast, while the second extended from one to two kilometres. The third zone covered the stretch between two and 5.5 kilometres from the coast, while the fourth comprised the area around a previously identified shipwreck.

"The objective of the three phases of exploration was to find more artefacts and remains that would offer valuable evidence of Poompuhar's glorious past, as described in literary sources," said K. Rajan, eminent archaeologist and Academic and Research Adviser to the TNSDA, who served as the Director of the underwater explorations off Poompuhar. His team of experts included R. Sivanantham, former Joint Director and V.P. Yathees Kumar, Joint Director (Technical) of the TNSDA; and K.M. Sivakholundu, Dean of the School of Naval Architecture and Ocean Engineering at the Indian Maritime University.

The exploration was conducted in a challenging environment where visibility was limited. Along this stretch of the eastern coast, underwater visibility is generally less than 10 metres and becomes poorer beyond that distance, owing to the clayey nature of the seabed close to the shore and continuous erosion caused by wave action, said Mr. Kumar.

Mr. Kumar, along with archaeologists Vasanthakumar, Bharathkumar and Kaleeswaran, underwent rigorous scuba-diving training for months and undertook the dives with the assistance of professional scuba divers, who also helped document the archaeologists' operations underwater, monitor their physical condition and blood pressure, and provide assistance with navigation.

While describing their journey during the explorations, the archaeologists said, on a typical day, the team would start around 8 a.m. from the shores of Poompuhar aboard a hired mechanised vessel equipped with the necessary instruments. After anchoring the main vessel at a suitable location, the team transferred to smaller fibre boats to reach specific sites from which the divers entered the water. The team usually returned between 2.30 p.m. and 4 p.m. to the shore.

"A dive would usually last for 45 minutes underwater at a depth of around 20 metres. We were equipped with side-scan sonar, echo sounders, Differential GPS, remotely operated vehicles, underwater pumps, dive computers, torches and cameras. Wet books are also carried to record observations and make drawings underwater," Mr. Kumar said.

During the exploration, the third zone between two and 5.5 kilometres emerged as the principal focus, as archaeologists identified ring wells and a diverse assemblage of more than 250 ceramic pieces spread across the seabed, including a broken piece of a torpedo jar and fragments of glazed ware, red ware and black-and-red ware.

Among the significant findings were the broken piece of the torpedo jar, a fragment of glazed pottery and the presence of ring wells with diameters ranging from 60 cm to 65 cm. "The finding of the torpedo jar was the first of its kind in an underwater survey. It is believed to have been brought from West Asia by traders. Earlier, we had established evidence of thriving trade between the eastern coast of ancient Tamilagam and the Romans through the discovery of Roman coins at Poompuhar. This is an important evidence to trace the trade contacts with West Asia," Mr. Rajan said.

The torpedo jar was a tubular vessel with a cylindrical body and a narrow mouth. Such jars had earlier been found at archaeological sites such as Alagankulam, Korkai and Porpanaikottai. They were generally used to transport liquid commodities such as wine or fish oil by ship. Their shape helped prevent the contents from spilling during transportation. The fragment of the torpedo unearthed in Poompuhar was made of fine ceramic. Based on its shape, the diameter of the complete torpedo jar is estimated to be around 35 cm.

Mr. Kumar said more than 250 ceramic pieces, besides remains of bowls, plates and storage jars, were found on the seabed. Limestone pieces and a fragment of a storage jar were identified near one of the ring wells. "Some of the plate fragments have been identified based on their thickness and physical characteristics. The presence of ring wells has raised the possibility of a palaeochannel having existed in the region," he said.

Examining the shipwreck

Another important objective of the present exploration was to revisit the previously identified shipwreck and document it comprehensively. Archaeologists had earlier recovered lead ingots from the shipwreck. During the recent investigation, the team identified four additional lead ingots from the shipwreck area. Researchers are now looking for further such material and attempting to document the entire structure. The team is also undertaking photographic and photogrammetric documentation of the shipwreck and another structure in the vicinity. Photogrammetry involves creating detailed three-dimensional representations of physical structures using photographs taken from multiple angles.

Several fishing nets had become entangled around the underwater structures and anomalies. These were carefully removed to facilitate closer examination and proper documentation, and to create a comprehensive record of the site, including the location, dimensions and characteristics of the structures. Such documentation could prove useful for subsequent investigations and help researchers develop a better understanding of the remains, Mr. Kumar said.

Renowned marine archaeologist V. Selvakumar, who headed the Department of Maritime History and Marine Archaeology at Tamil University in Thanjavur, said the discovery of the torpedo jar and glazed ware offered valuable potential for further underwater exploration off Poompuhar. "There are several modern marine archaeological exploration equipment being used to conduct the exercise worldwide. Utilising those while conducting explorations in future could help unearth more evidence," he added.

Mr. Rajan said the next phase of exploration would focus on identifying more ceramics, tracing their origin and production centres to establish trade links, and locating the settlements where people lived. "Now that we are getting evidence of artefacts and other remains used by people, such as ceramics and ring wells, the next step is to look for the extension of the settlement, demarcating it along the palaeochannel. Further exploration would be conducted in the vicinity where artefacts were unearthed," he added.

The Department is planning to submit a fresh proposal to the Archaeological Survey of India seeking approval for another year of underwater exploration off the Poompuhar coast. Archaeologists said considering the ongoing monsoon season and prevailing conditions in the sea, it would not be possible to take up further excavation this year. The TNSDA is therefore looking at resuming operations in January or February next year, when sea conditions might become more stable.